June 2026 Volume12 Issue 2

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY JOURNAL

Advances in Spawn Production Technique for Edible Mushrooms: From Traditional Grain Spawn to Liquid Culture Systems

Anushka Tiwari, Ajay Kumar

  • Pages: 1-8
    • <p>Mushroom cultivation has emerged as one of the fastest-growing sectors in agricultural biotechnology due to its nutritional, medicinal, and economic importance. Among all the factors involved in successful mushroom cultivation, spawn quality plays the most critical role because it directly affects mycelial growth, substrate colonization, biological efficiency, fruiting behavior, yield, and disease resistance. Spawn acts as the vegetative planting material of mushrooms and serves as the carrier of actively growing fungal mycelium. Over the years, mushroom spawn production techniques have undergone remarkable transformation from primitive natural inoculation methods to scientifically controlled grain spawn systems and advanced liquid culture technologies. Traditional grain spawn methods have been used for decades because cereal grains provide excellent nutritional support for fungal growth. Wheat grains, rye grains, millet, sorghum, and maize are commonly used for spawn preparation due to their carbohydrate and protein content. Although grain spawn remains highly effective and widely practiced, several limitations such as contamination risk, uneven colonization, labor- intensive preparation, and limited scalability have encouraged researchers to develop improved spawn production systems. Recent advances in fungal biotechnology and fermentation technology have introduced liquid culture systems as a highly efficient alternative for large-scale mushroom production. Liquid spawn technology involves the cultivation of fungal mycelium in nutrient-rich broth media under sterile and controlled environmental conditions. Compared to conventional grain spawn, liquid culture systems provide faster mycelial multiplication, uniform inoculum distribution, reduced incubation time, and improved mechanization potential. These systems are now increasingly being adopted in commercial mushroom industries worldwide. In addition to liquid culture technologies, modern mushroom spawn laboratories utilize advanced sterilization systems, laminar airflow chambers, molecular diagnostic tools, bioreactors, cryopreservation methods, artificial intelligence-assisted monitoring systems, and precision fermentation techniques to enhance spawn quality and contamination control. Such innovations have transformed spawn production into a sophisticated branch of agricultural biotechnology. This review highlights the historical evolution of mushroom spawn production, different types of spawn, traditional grain spawn techniques, liquid culture systems, contamination management strategies, recent biotechnological advancements, economic significance, and future prospects of commercial mushroom spawn production. The review also emphasizes the importance of sustainable and efficient spawn technologies in meeting the growing global demand for edible and medicinal mushrooms.</p>

A Brief Review: Synthetic Biology Applications in Sustainable Fashion

Belal Ansari and Abhilasha Gautam

  • Pages: 1-9
    • <p>Masses of resources, like water and energy, are used by the fashion industry, and thus the fashion industry is a key contributor to the degradation of natural resources. There are also a large number of waste produced and a very high level of pollution. This is why there is a growing demand for environmentally friendly fashions.Synthetic biology is an example of a way that scientists can use engineered living organisms such as fungi or bacteria to create environmentally friendly and useful products without using toxic chemicals and/or petroleum-based products in their production.Your research will help provide evidence that supports how synthetic biological processes can support the development of environmentally friendly fashions.The focus of this program will be on creating textiles made from natural fibres, such as animal hair, plant materials, and synthetic fibres; building up renewable and biodegradable sources of raw materials; dyeing products with nontoxic and low-impact chemicals such as vegetable dyes; and promoting recycling of textile materials by creating an efficient and effective way to recycle textile material after they have been used. In addition to discussing the benefits of utilizing these alternatives, the program will also address issues such as ethical and environmental concerns and current limitations of using these alternatives, along with the potential future difficulties associated with large scale production.</p>

Biochemical Changes During Accelerated Ageing in Millet Seeds

Amit Shrivastava

  • Pages: 1-5
    • <p>Millets are important cereal crops known for their nutritional richness, climate resilience, and suitability for cultivation in dry and semi-arid regions. Seed quality plays a vital role in ensuring proper germination, healthy seedling establishment, and higher crop productivity. However, seed ageing during storage leads to a gradual decline in viability and vigour, thereby negatively affecting crop performance. Accelerated ageing is a laboratory technique used to simulate natural seed deterioration by exposing seeds to high temperature and relative humidity for a specific period. The present study focuses on the biochemical changes occurring during accelerated ageing in millet seeds. Ageing causes significant deterioration in seed quality through membrane damage, increased electrolyte leakage, lipid peroxidation, and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These changes lead to oxidative stress, which damages essential cellular components such as proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids. The activity of key enzymes such as alpha-amylase, catalase, peroxidase, and dehydrogenases decreases with increasing ageing duration, affecting reserve mobilisation and germination efficiency. Additionally, protein degradation and altered carbohydrate metabolism reduce the availability of energy required for embryo growth and seedling development. As a result, aged seeds show lower germination percentage, reduced seedling vigour, delayed emergence, and poor field performance. The study of these biochemical changes helps in understanding the mechanisms of seed deterioration and provides useful indicators for assessing seed quality. This research contributes to improving storage practices, seed treatment methods, and seed longevity management in millet crops. A better understanding of accelerated ageing can support sustainable millet production and strengthen food security in regions dependent on these important cereals</p>

Comparative Evaluation of Pollen Viability and Germination under Heat Stress in Major Field Crops: Chickpea, Wheat, and Mustard

Nidhi Saroj and Abhilasha Gautam

  • Pages: 1-10
    • <p>The rising temperatures are becoming an important threat for the crop yield. The developmental phase is especially sensitive to changes in temperature. Among several physiological factors that may be considered, pollen fertility and germination are reliable indicators of heat-stress, due to their role in fertilization. Aim of present research includes a comparative study of pollen viability and pollen germination concerning heat stress in three crop plants grown in the field including Chickpea, Wheat, and Mustard.The effect of heat stress in plant flowering stages is negatively related to the development of anthers, pollen sterility, and pollen germination, thereby leading to a reduction in seed production. From the comparative analysis that was carried out for the crops undergoing heat stress condition, it can be observed that the Chickpea crop is less resistant to heat stress than the Wheat and Mustard crops.On the whole, viability of pollen grains and pollen germination can be highly beneficial and efficient approaches in the selection of heat stress-resistant crops from diverse crops.The utilization of such reproductive characteristics in breeding programs may result in crops resistant to the effects of elevated temperatures. The negative effect of heat stress on reproduction in the case of the Wheat leads to a reduction in the viability and germination of pollen grains, which has a direct relation to the decrease in grain production in high temperatures. The Chickpea is also sensitive to heat stress resulting in decreased pollen fertility and germination of pollen grains caused by disturbances in carbohydrate metabolism in plants and, consequently, a lower content of sucrose in anthers. As for the Mustard, heat stress causes negative effects on pollen viability and fertilization, yet the sensitivity is genotypic.</p>

A review on Biosensors for infectious disease detection

Priyanshi Sahu,Dr. Vivek Srivastava

  • Pages: 1-6
    • <p>The incidence of infectious disease remains one of the biggest challenges to worldwide public health (due to high morbidity and mortality rates). The accuracy and timeframe for diagnosing these diseases are important in disease management and control. Biosensors evolved into sophisticated, complex analytical instruments that can offer a rapid, highly sensitive and real-time detection of the pathogen. Different biosensors use various transduction methods, such as electrochemical, optical, or piezoelectric methods, to measure biological interactions by detecting changes in signals. The various types of biosensors have been discussed. Different biological agents (e.g., bacteria, viruses and parasites) will continue to be detected by the various biosensors. You will soon be able to utilize the latest advances in nanotechnology, microfluidics, increased sensor sensitivity, increased sensor specificity, miniaturizations, and reduced costs in developing the new biosensors. The diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases are improved by biosensors, which appear to be helpful tools.</p>
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